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Pakistan-China Defence Cooperation
Beginning from their border settlement pact of March 3, 1963, which
was their first joint action against India's sovereign borders and interests,
China has emerged as Pakistan's single most trusted and enduring military
ally. This is partly so because of their mutually shared complimentarities;
with Pakistan providing an anti-India nexus, a market for China's low
quality weapons and access to western technologies that arrive in Pakistan,
and China in turn supplying Pakistan with cheap yet extensive, good quality
know-how and technologies as also the required political and moral support.
But above all, the two countries share an orthodox social system, both are
ruled by authoritarian power elites and both have military dominated polities
which makes mutual dealings easier. However, there is more to their
"special relationship" especially in the matter
of sharing defence and other related technologies.
The Salient features of the Pakistan-China military nexus:
* Unlike their western friends who historically imposed embargoes whenever
Pakistan was involved in a war the Chinese have provided military assistance to
Pakistan whenever it needed it the most.
* The terms on which the Chinese provided weapons and
equipment was not aimed at perpetuating Pakistan's dependence on Beijing
but on encouraging self-reliance and indigenisation. This included supply
of spare parts, setting up local overhauling facilities, license production
and joint ventures.
* The quality of weapons supplied by China was not state-of-the-art
but 'appropriate' technologies, thus facilitating their absorption and
adaption by Pakistan's armed forces and scientists with their limited infrastructure,
know-how and expertise.
* China's continued arms supplied greatly contributed towards
building up of Pakistan's defence posture, especially as it generated interest
amongst other supplier countries who were interested in containing China's
increasing influence in Pakistan.
* The military relationship with China suited Pakistan as the latter could often
keep details of their defence cooperation agreements secret and announce them only
when convenient.
*
Compared to the United States from where the supplies were
subject to international law/treaties, world and domestic public opinion,
and other restrictive factors, China was known to be master of its own
whims which meant that its supplies were not subject to any constraints.
* The absence of a strong domestic industrial, scientific and technological
base coupled with the prohibitive costs of modern military technology were added
reasons for Pakistan to build a 'Special Relationship' with the PRC.
The Genesis
The repeated arms embargoes by the United States, especially
one during the 1965 Indo-Pak war, were particularly responsible for an
increasing emphasis within Pakistan for indigenisation and self-reliance in
defence production. This was also responsible for pushing Pakistan
closer towards China in an attempt to diversify its sources of weapons and other equipment.
China was interested in staving off western attempts
to contain it. China was also against India with which it had just fought
a war in October 1962.
The first formal step towards Sino-Pak defence cooperation
was taken soon after 1965 war during which China had not only sided with Pakistan
during its aggression against India but had put its own forces on the Indian
border on full alert and even threatened India of dire consequences.
Soon China agreed to provide technical and financial assistance for
setting up an ordnance factory at Dhaka which was aimed at strengthening
Pakistan's eastern defence as also to fulfil demands of that region's people
for an ordnance factory since Pakistan had built its Wah industrial
complex in 1950s near Karachi. This new ordnance factory was commissioned
after three years of work in November 1970 but in the next one year it was
lost to Bangladesh that became an independent country.
Building Infrastructure:
China provided assistance to Pakistan in setting up facilities at the Heavy Rebuild Factory (HRF) at Taxila which would not only provide for the overhauling of Chinese Type-59 MBTs but which would also to start upgrading these tanks' critical components such as its fire control systems, thermal sight and electronic systems. In the 1980s HRF started license production of the state-of-the-art Chinese Type-69 MBTs.
Later, a protocol was signed between China and Pakistan to set up facilities for the license production of Chinese Type-69 II BMPs. The ARV hulls were, however, imported from China along with armour plates,
while other parts were manufactured in Pakistan under the technical advice of Chinese experts. China's Norinco has also helped Pakistan in the manufacture of Chinese T-69 and T-85 II MBTs and M-113 Armored Personnel Carriers. Similarly, the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex at Kamra was also established with Chinese assistance. The F-6 Rebuild Factory, established as a turnkey project by China, which became operational in November 1980. The F-6 had, after the American F-86 Sabres, had come to be the mainstay of the Pakistan Air Force (PAF).
China later also built in Pakistan overhauling facilities for the F-6 Shenyang fighter and the Tumansky RD-9B-8II turbojet engines with over 7,000 other spare parts. Later, China also expanded this factory to undertake the overhauling of FT-5, FT-6 and FT-7s. Then with the phasing out of the F-6s, the facility has diversified towards maintenance and overhaul of the F-7Ps. The Light Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (LAMF), another turnkey project completed by China in June 1981, was meant for producing complete airframes and eventual production of light aircraft. By September 1983, this facility started license-production
of SAAB Scania MF-1-17 (locally known as Mushshak) which later became the first step for Pakistan to initiate collaboration on the jet trainer Karakoram-8 with the Chinese. This also led to their collaboration on the joint development of the Super-7 fighter.
Full detains are not available on China's role in Pakistan's indigenisation of production facilities for basic munitions and various categories of small arms. There are many other defence related collaborations between these two countries. The Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC), the biggest undertaking
of its type in Pakistan, was set up at Taxila in 1979 with the help of Chinese assistance and expertise. The Heavy Forge Factory (HFF) at this complex has proved crucial for Pakistan's defence production needs.
Current projects:
Current military cooperation between the two countries operates under the provisions of the June 1990, Sino-Pak Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for a ten-year cooperation in procurement, R & D, technology transfer and co-production. This understanding has got a fresh lease of life ever since the Pressler amendment came into force six years ago.
Al-Khalid MBT:
The indigenous development of the MBT Al Khalid was also started with the help of the Chinese. This began in 1988 when Pakistan started building a manufacturing plant at Taxila (completed in 1992). In January 1990, the two countries signed an agreement to jointly design, develop and manufacture the
'Al-Khalid' which is also called MBT-2000. Primary prototypes produced in China were fielded for trials in August 1991. This was possible in such a short time because the basic research had already been going on in China for some years. Since then repeated trials have been taking place to improve the MBT for Pakistan's difficult terrain and high temperatures. Heavy Industries Taxila is expected to start production of Al-Khalid before the turn of this century.
Karakoram-8 trainer/fighter
The Karakoram-8 (or K-8) was a joint venture between the China National Aerotechnology Import Export Corporation (CATIC), China Nanchang Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CNAMC) and the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) established in 1986. The K-8 project was named after the mountain range on the Sino-Pak border. Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (AMF) at Kamra was collaborating with NAMC in China for K-8. This was designed and built at Nanchang by a team of engineers provided by the PAC. Its maiden flight took place in November 1990 and its low rate production started in early 1992. Later, the two countries signed an agreement for Pakistan's purchase of six K-8 jet trainers which were to be delivered beginning from July 1994.
Developed by the NAMC, Aviation Industries China (AVIC), CATIC and PAC, the K-8 was expected to replace the ageing T-37 fighters and even partially replace the advanced Chinese FT-5 trainers as it could provide both basic and advanced training. The K-8 prototypes have already flown over the Karakoram range to Kamra during trials. Pakistan had at one time wanted a part in the Chinese L-8 project for a tandem-seat basic trainer and light ground attack aircraft. But by the time prototypes became ready in 1994, Pakistan had decided against building its own assembly line and went on to buy them from China which has already supplied 6 aircraft by November 1994.
Super-7 fighter
The Super-7 also known as FC-1 was originally a joint project for preliminary design between CATIC and Grumman (USA). An agreement towards this end was signed in October 1988. This project was, however, suspended by the US government following the Tiananmen Square crisis of June 1989. Later, in 1992, to revive this project the CATIC signed a fresh contract with PAC and the development of this fighter has continued ever since. The first flight of this fighter is planned for 1996.
Missiles:
Pakistan's missile development programme was started in the 1980s with the active assistance from the Chinese. Sino-Pak missile collaboration goes back to 1986 when Pakistan started assembling the RBS-70 Mk 1 and Mk 2 air defence missiles systems. Collaboration in the area of longer range missiles with the Chinese began once Pakistan became involved in financing their M-9 and M-11 missiles programmes. General Mirza Aslam Beg is on record for having told the press after a visit to Beijing in 1987 that China's Red Arrows were better than US TOW-11 saying that it had the "advantage of going for reverse technology and retaining it, improving on it, till you achieve what you want to achieve".
Chinese help is suspected to be responsible for Pakistan's successful testing in early 1989 of its Hatf II missile. With a 300 km range, this missile is believed to be result of the French Eridan sounding rocket technology mixed with the Chinese expertise. This area of their collaboration has lately become very controversial following reports by the US intelligence agencies that China has transferred about 30 or more of its intermediate range M-11 missiles to Pakistan which, of course, both China and Pakistan have repeatedly denied. Added to this whole gamut of Sino-Pak defence cooperation is the question of their nuclear cooperation which makes their nexus particularly alarming for the future of India's peace and security.
Arms Transfers
PRC Major Conventional Weapons Transfers to Pakistan
| Year |
Aircraft |
Armour/Artillery |
Naval Vessels |
| 1965 |
4 MiG-15 Trainers |
80 T-59 MBTs |
not known |
| 1966 |
4 IL-28 Bombers
40 F-6 Fighters |
not known |
not known |
| 1970-73 |
80 F-6 Fighters |
210 T-59 MBTs
53 T-63 LTs |
12 SHANGHAI PBs
4 HUCHUAN FACs |
| 1973-76 |
15 F-6 Fighters |
159 T-59 MBTs
200 T-531 APCs |
2 HAINAN PBs |
| 1977-79 |
24 F-4 Fighters |
150 T-59 MBTs
200 130 MM TGs
50 122 MM SPHs |
not known |
| 1980-82 |
20 F-6 Fighters |
150 T-59 MBTs
50 T-60 LTs
50 122 MM MRS |
2 HAINAN PBs
4 HEGU FACs |
| 1983-85 |
42 Q-5 Fighters |
150 T-59 MBTs |
4 HUANGFEN FACs |
| 1986-88 |
98 Q-5 Fighters |
200 T-59 MBTs |
not known |
| 1988-89 |
60 F-7 Fighters |
200 T-59 MBTs |
2 ROMEO CLASS |
| 1990-92 |
not known |
125 T-59 MBTs |
not known |
| 1992-93 |
not known |
97 MBTs |
not known |
| 1993-94 |
40 Fighters |
35 MBTs |
not known |
| 1994-95 |
not known |
82 T-85 II MBTs |
not known |
In terms of arms transfers as well it is not the United States, which is so often in the news, but China that has been the most significant supplier of Pakistan since the early 1960s. China, for instance had accounted for over 1/3rd of Pakistan's arms imports during 1966-1980, which was far ahead of its other major suppliers. Even following the end of the Cold War era when arms transfers has seen a declining trend, the Pressler amendment of 1992 has ensured China's pre-eminence in Pakistan's arms imports. As
a result, China by now has supplied Pakistan with over 1,600 main battle tanks, 400 combat aircraft and about 40 naval vessels. China, in fact, has developed such a stake in supplying arms to Pakistan that it has often flouted its commitment to both the Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty (NPT) as also the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). Given these realities there is no reason to presume that the China-Pakistan military nexus will not deepen over time.
Author: Dr Swaran Singh (a Research Officer with the Institute for Defence
Studies & Analysis, New Delhi.)
Date: May 1996
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